In "Sonny’s Blues," James Baldwin writes about the constant “menace” that looms over Harlem, a threat that is not always visible but always present. Baldwin’s characters wrestle with this menace in various ways: Sonny turns to heroin, and later the piano, to cope with the suffocating weight of systemic oppression, while his brother, the narrator, turns to conformity as a means of survival. This sense of constant threat and the varied responses to it are themes Baldwin explores in depth. These themes also resonate in August Wilson’s Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom, where the characters similarly contend with an omnipresent menace that seeks to silence and control them, particularly through the forces of racism, economic exploitation, and cultural appropriation. Wilson continues Baldwin’s exploration of the “menace” by showing how characters like Ma Rainey, Levee, and others in the play respond to this unrelenting pressure. In particular, Wilson contrasts Ma’s successful struggle for artistic and personal control with Levee’s tragic downfall, which stems from his decision to prioritize individualism over his community.
At the heart of Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom is the story of Ma Rainey, the iconic blues singer who fought tirelessly for control of her music and voice in an industry dominated by white producers. Ma represents a model of resistance to the “menace” Baldwin described. She has achieved success, but at great personal cost. She understands the danger of being co-opted and manipulated by those who seek to profit from her labor and identity. In the play, Ma’s demand for control over her work—especially in a recording session where the white producers attempt to dictate how her music should be performed—reflects her ongoing struggle to protect her voice. She knows that her artistic autonomy is threatened by those who do not understand or respect the cultural significance of her work. In Act 2, when the producers try to dictate how she should perform “Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom,” she asserts her authority by insisting, “They don’t care nothing about me. All they want is my voice. . . . As soon as they get my voice down on them recording machines, then it’s just like if I’d be some whore and they roll over and put their pants on.”[1] Ma’s power lies in her refusal to allow anyone to define her, and by maintaining her voice, she challenges the oppressive forces at play. She may be marginalized as a Black woman in a racist, sexist world, but she remains firmly in control of her artistic output.
However, not all characters in the play respond to the “menace” in such an empowered way. Levee, a talented but ambitious trumpet player, represents an alternative response to the same pressures. While Ma Rainey uses her strength to assert control over her voice and career, Levee attempts to forge his own path by rejecting the tradition and solidarity of his community in favor of individual ambition. Levee’s desire to create his own music and “make it big” is a reaction to the same forces that Ma faces—racism, exploitation, and the desire for recognition. Yet, unlike Ma, Levee’s ambition leads him down a path of self-destruction. His need for recognition and success pushes him to betray his community, a betrayal that ultimately costs him his humanity and leads to violence. At the end, Levee kills Toledo in a fit of rage, symbolizing the destructive effects of his individualistic approach to dealing with the menace of oppression.
Levee’s downfall is, in many ways, a tragic reflection of the costs of placing oneself above the collective. His decision to pursue his dreams at the expense of the solidarity and support of his fellow musicians marks him as a character who has internalized the racist, capitalist values that seek to divide marginalized groups in order to control them. In Levee’s eyes, success is an individual endeavor; in this worldview, community is secondary. He believes that he can overcome the systemic racism he faces by rising above it, but in doing so, he loses his connection to the very people who are fighting the same battle. When Levee kills Toledo, it is not just an act of personal frustration—it is an act of betrayal. Toledo, the oldest and wisest of the band, represents the collective wisdom of the Black community, a community that understands the importance of solidarity and mutual support in the face of external oppression. Levee’s decision to kill Toledo symbolizes his refusal to recognize the value of that community. By putting his individual desires above the needs of the group, Levee ensures that he will never truly succeed, as his ambition blinds him to the importance of collective struggle.
Levee’s tragic arc stands in stark contrast to Ma Rainey’s. Where Levee chooses to put himself above his community, Ma Rainey understands that her power comes from her ability to protect and assert her voice within the context of her community. The community of musicians—despite the tensions and betrayals within it—ultimately shares a common struggle. They all work together in resistance to the white power structures that seek to profit from their labor while denying them control over their own work. Ma’s insistence on taking control of her music and her career is not an individualistic pursuit, but rather a form of collective resistance to exploitation. In this sense, she serves as a symbol of what Baldwin’s “menace” can do to those who choose to fight it together. The “menace” of systemic racism and exploitation may try to divide, conquer, and silence the oppressed, but Ma Rainey’s success shows that it is possible to confront it head-on and retain one’s voice in the process.
Levee, on the other hand, represents the tragic consequences of trying to confront this “menace” in isolation. His decision to act alone and put his personal ambitions over the welfare of his community mirrors the pitfalls of the American Dream, where individual success is often prioritized at the expense of social responsibility. Levee believes that by achieving fame and recognition, he will rise above the very systems that oppress him. Yet, his attempt to break free from the constraints of his community ultimately leads to his undoing. His violence toward Toledo can be seen as an expression of the internalized oppression he carries—an inability to see the value of his community or understand that true liberation comes not through individualism, but through collective solidarity.
Sure, Ma Rainey can certainly be seen as somewhat selfish or diva-like in her behavior. She is demanding, difficult to work with, and unapologetically focused on her own interests. However, her individuality can be understood within the context of the systemic oppression she faces, and it ultimately contributes to her ability to maintain her voice in an industry that seeks to exploit her.
What sets Ma apart from Levee, though, is that her selfishness is rooted in survival, and she is deeply aware of the system’s exploitation of Black artists. Unlike Levee, who is often driven by individual ambition and personal desire for recognition, Ma’s actions are based on a broader sense of resistance. She fights to retain control of her music because she knows that, as a Black woman in the 1920’s music industry, she is already marginalized and would be quickly consumed by the forces seeking to profit from her talent if she doesn’t assert herself. In this sense, her “selfishness” is strategic—it’s an act of self-preservation that allows her to maintain control over her artistic expression.
Levee, on the other hand, lacks the same sense of strategic understanding. He is driven more by personal ambition and desires for recognition, which, in his case, are not framed within a larger context of resistance or survival. Levee seeks fame and success, but he does so at the expense of his community. He believes he can rise above the systemic oppression he faces as a Black man by achieving personal success. However, his individualism leads him to alienate those around him, and his obsession with his own voice ultimately leads to his downfall. Unlike Ma, who understands that her strength comes from her ability to navigate the oppressive system while maintaining control of her identity and music, Levee is willing to sacrifice his community and his identity for the sake of his individual ambition.
One of the key reasons why Ma succeeds in maintaining her voice while Levee fails is that Ma understands the importance of community and solidarity. Ma’s actions, while often demanding or selfish in nature, are aligned with a long-term vision of resistance against exploitation. She may seem difficult at times, but she is never willing to compromise on her core values or her artistic autonomy, and she knows that without that autonomy, she would lose her identity altogether.
For example, Ma’s insistence that Sylvester, despite his stutter, introduce the song, and her demand that Sturdyvant pay him for his performance, can be seen as a strategic move to assert the value and humanity of the Black individuals involved in the music-making process. Ma is fully aware of how easily Black artists, especially musicians like herself and her band, can be reduced to mere commodities in the eyes of white producers like Sturdyvant, who view them solely in terms of their commercial value.
By having Sylvester introduce the song, despite his stutter, Ma is not only asserting his right to participate and be acknowledged but is also making a statement about the importance of each individual’s voice. Sylvester, with his stutter, represents the marginalized and often silenced voices in the Black community. Ma’s decision to have him introduce the song is, in a way, an act of resistance against a system that would overlook or diminish people like Sylvester. Ma refuses to let anyone, including Sturdyvant, strip away his dignity or his right to be seen and heard, even if it means forcing an uncomfortable situation where the producer must confront his own biases.
Additionally, Ma’s insistence on Sturdyvant paying Sylvester is part of her broader approach to ensuring that the labor of Black artists is properly valued. She knows that the white producers are quick to exploit her music for profit without ever truly acknowledging the worth of the people who create it. By making Sturdyvant pay Sylvester, Ma is asserting that Black performers deserve recognition and compensation for their talents, just as much as anyone else. This is not just about Sylvester or about Ma’s own career; it’s about the systemic exploitation of Black artists in the industry as a whole. By making a stand for payment and respect, Ma is claiming agency not only for herself but also for the entire Black community of musicians, forcing Sturdyvant and others to confront their exploitation.
Ma’s insistence in both cases speaks to her broader strategy of navigating a world that seeks to silence and exploit her and her community. Unlike Levee, who operates with an individualistic mindset and is willing to sacrifice others to achieve personal success, Ma understands that her power lies in recognizing the collective struggle and ensuring that everyone involved is valued and respected. Sylvester’s stutter and the need to be paid for his performance are just two more ways in which Ma asserts her—and their—humanity in a world that too often ignores it. This demonstrates Ma’s deep understanding of how both racial and economic systems work to oppress Black people, and how, in order to survive and assert themselves, they must challenge those systems at every opportunity.
So, in insisting on these actions, Ma is sending a clear message: no one will be overlooked or dehumanized on her watch, and everyone’s voice—no matter how imperfect or marginalized—is of equal value. It’s a defiant stand against the very forces of exploitation that would seek to silence her and her community, making it a powerful moment in the play’s broader commentary on race, power, and artistic control.
Levee, in contrast, isolates himself in his pursuit of personal glory. His desire to prove himself as a unique, successful individual above the collective interests of his bandmates and community blinds him to the necessity of solidarity in the face of systemic oppression. In choosing to place himself above others, especially by betraying his fellow musicians, Levee forfeits the chance to amplify his voice in any meaningful way. His fatal flaw is not only his individualism but his inability to see that his community’s collective strength is crucial to his survival and success.
In the end, Ma's success in maintaining her voice is a result of both her deep understanding of the racial and economic forces that try to silence Black artists and her ability to maneuver within that system while staying true to herself. Levee's failure is a direct consequence of his lack of that same understanding—he is ultimately consumed by his individualism and internalized self-hate, making him susceptible to the oppressive forces he is trying to overcome.
Finally, Ma Rainey does not support Levee because she recognizes that his individualism and desire for fame undermine the solidarity and collective struggle that are essential for survival in a system that seeks to exploit Black people. Levee’s ambition to rise above the community and his willingness to compromise his integrity for personal success are at odds with Ma’s approach, which is grounded in asserting the collective power and voice of Black artists. While Ma fights to maintain control over her music and her identity, Levee, driven by personal vendettas and desires for recognition, risks isolating himself from the very community that has shaped him. In Ma’s eyes, Levee’s self-centeredness and inability to recognize the strength in unity make him a dangerous, misguided figure. She understands that without the support and solidarity of her community, no one can truly succeed in the face of systemic oppression.
Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom builds on Baldwin’s idea of the “menace” as an ever-present, looming threat that shapes the lives of those in marginalized communities. While Baldwin’s characters confront this menace in different ways, Wilson’s play shows how the struggle for voice and identity within the Black community is similarly fraught with challenges. Ma Rainey’s triumph lies in her refusal to let anyone steal her voice, while Levee’s downfall underscores the dangers of placing individual ambition above collective struggle. Ultimately, Wilson’s play reflects the enduring struggle for control, dignity, and voice in a world that continually seeks to silence the oppressed, reminding us that, as Baldwin wrote, the menace is not just external—it is internalized and can destroy those who let it divide them.
Reference
- ↑ Wilson, August (1981). Ma Rainey’s Black Bottom. New York: Plume. p. 79.