CompFAQ/Literary Interpretation/Marxist Criticism

📝 English Composition Writing FAQ

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Marxist Criticism

When students hear the word “Marxism,” it might conjure images of old propaganda posters, Cold War rhetoric, or economic systems they’ve been taught to equate with failure. Yet, Marxism, at its heart, is neither an outdated political ideology nor a dogmatic set of beliefs; rather, it is a powerful analytical framework for understanding how material conditions—especially economic structures—shape human experiences, societies, and cultures. Marxist literary criticism applies this framework to literary interpretation, exploring socio-economic contexts and examining how they reflect or challenge the world in which they were produced.

Introduction

At its core, Marxism begins with a simple but profound observation: human life is shaped by the material conditions in which we live. This concept, often referred to as historical materialism, asserts that our ideas, beliefs, and social systems are not abstract or independent forces but are instead deeply rooted in the economic foundations of society. As Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels famously wrote, “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being that determines their consciousness.” In other words, the way societies organize labor, production, and wealth shapes everything else, from politics to culture to personal relationships.

This idea underpins the base-superstructure model, which serves as a key principle of Marxism. The economic “base” (the means of production, such as factories, land, and labor) determines the “superstructure” (societal institutions like law, religion, and art). While this model has been criticized for being overly deterministic, Marxist critics, including later theorists like Raymond Williams, argue for a more nuanced relationship in which the superstructure, though shaped by the base, can also influence and challenge it. This dynamic interplay between material conditions and cultural production makes Marxism a valuable tool for interpreting literature.

In the Western world, particularly in the United States, the legacy of anti-communist propaganda has painted Marxism as a rigid, failed ideology irrelevant to modern life. However, such portrayals ignore Marxism’s broader intellectual contributions, especially its focus on critiquing inequality and understanding power dynamics. Marxism is not about prescribing one political system or another, but about asking crucial questions: Who has power in society? How is that power maintained? How are wealth and resources distributed? And how do these dynamics shape culture and human behavior?

When used as a critical framework, Marxism does not require students to “agree” with its political implications. Instead, it encourages them to approach literature as a reflection of the material and ideological conditions of its time. By doing so, students learn to think critically about how class, power, and economics influence human behavior and societal structures—skills that are as relevant today as they were in Marx’s time.

Key Figures in Marxist Criticism

Marxist literary criticism has evolved significantly since Marx and Engels laid its philosophical foundations. György Lukács, one of the first literary theorists to adopt a Marxist approach, emphasized the concept of “historical realism,” which examines how literature reflects socio-economic realities. Lukács argued that great literature does not merely mirror the world but reveals the underlying forces—such as class struggle—that shape it.

Antonio Gramsci introduced the concept of hegemony, which describes how the ruling class maintains power not only through coercion but also by shaping cultural norms and ideologies. This idea is particularly important for understanding how literature can both perpetuate and resist dominant ideologies.

In the 20th century, theorists like Terry Eagleton and Fredric Jameson expanded Marxist criticism into new areas. Eagleton argued that literature often serves as a site of ideological struggle, where competing worldviews collide. Jameson, on the other hand, developed the idea of cognitive mapping, which explores how literature helps individuals make sense of the complex social and economic forces that govern their lives.

Why Marxist Criticism Matters Today

Marxism remains valuable for interpreting literature because many of the problems it critiques—class inequality, exploitation, and the concentration of wealth—persist in the modern world. As Terry Eagleton points out, Marxism remains relevant not because it provides “pat answers” but because it equips us with tools to “illuminate the conditions under which we live.” Literature, as a cultural product, is deeply intertwined with these conditions. It reflects the values, struggles, and ideologies of its time, offering a window into the socio-economic forces shaping society.

For instance, think about the modern gig economy, the rising wealth gap, or debates about healthcare and education. These are all issues rooted in class and economic structures, the very concerns Marxist criticism seeks to explore. When students analyze literature through a Marxist approach, they gain a deeper understanding of how these forces operate—not just in stories but in the real world.

Core Tenets

Marxist literary criticism is built upon several key concepts that form the foundation for its analysis of literature. These tenets—derived from Marxist philosophy—provide the tools for understanding the relationship between material conditions, power dynamics, and cultural production. Each tenet offers a way to critically examine how literature reflects, critiques, or perpetuates societal structures.

Base and Superstructure

At the heart of Marxist thought is the idea of the base and superstructure, an architectural metaphor used by Marx and Engels to describe the relationship between a society’s economic foundation (the base) and its cultural and ideological institutions (the superstructure). The base consists of the means of production (e.g., factories, technology, resources) and the relations of production (e.g., employer-employee relationships, class hierarchies). The superstructure includes everything from politics and law to art, literature, and religion. In this model, the base shapes the superstructure, while the superstructure reinforces the base.

Raymond Williams, a leading Marxist cultural theorist, adds nuance to this idea by arguing that the superstructure is not a passive reflection of the base, but is dynamic and capable of exerting influence in return. Williams describes the relationship as one of “mediation” rather than strict causality. For literary criticism, this means that while literature is shaped by economic and social conditions, it can also challenge or reshape dominant ideologies.

Understanding this interplay allows critics to examine how texts reflect the material conditions of their time. For instance, a novel set during the Industrial Revolution might reveal the dehumanizing effects of factory labor while also promoting individualism, a value that serves capitalist interests.

Class Struggle

A defining feature of Marxism is its emphasis on class struggle—the conflict between different social classes vying for control of resources and power. Marxist criticism views literature as a site where these class tensions are represented, negotiated, or critiqued. Marx himself argued that “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.” This struggle typically occurs between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class that controls the means of production) and the proletariat (the working class that provides labor).

In literature, class struggle can manifest in various ways, such as depictions of inequality, resistance, or exploitation. For example, György Lukács argues that great works of literature often portray these struggles through “historical realism,” a method that reveals the underlying forces shaping society. By analyzing characters, plotlines, and conflicts, Marxist critics uncover how class dynamics drive the narrative and reflect broader societal tensions.

Ideology

Ideology refers to the systems of ideas and beliefs that shape how people perceive and interact with the world. According to Marx and Engels, ideology serves to maintain the dominance of the ruling class by presenting their interests as universal and natural. Terry Eagleton defines ideology as “the ways in which what we say and believe connects with the structure and power-relations of the society we live in.” In other words, ideology often obscures inequalities and reinforces existing power structures.

For Marxist critics, literature is a key site where ideology operates. Texts may perpetuate dominant ideologies, subtly reinforcing class hierarchies and social norms, or they may challenge these ideologies, exposing their contradictions and limitations. For instance, a Marxist analysis of The Great Gatsby might explore how the novel critiques the American Dream—an ideology that promises upward mobility but masks systemic inequalities.

Materialism

Materialism, or historical materialism, is a core principle of Marxism that prioritizes material conditions—such as economic systems and labor relations—over abstract ideals in shaping human experience. This perspective contrasts with idealism, which views ideas as the primary drivers of history and culture. Marxist criticism, as Lois Tyson notes, argues that “the economic systems that structure human societies are the real forces that create human experience.”

Materialism is essential for literary analysis because it encourages critics to consider the tangible, real-world conditions that influence a text. This might include the author’s socio-economic background, the historical moment in which the work was produced, or the economic structures depicted within the narrative. For example, a Marxist reading of Charles Dickens’ Hard Times would focus on the depiction of industrial capitalism and its effects on workers’ lives.

Hegemony

The concept of hegemony, developed by Antonio Gramsci, expands upon the idea of ideology by emphasizing how the ruling class maintains power not only through coercion but also by shaping cultural norms and values. Gramsci describes hegemony as the process by which dominant groups secure consent from subordinate groups, making their rule appear natural and inevitable.

Hegemony is particularly relevant for understanding how literature can reinforce or challenge cultural norms. For instance, a Marxist analysis of Victorian literature might examine how novels of the period reinforce the ideology of separate spheres, which confined women to domestic roles while privileging male dominance in public life. Conversely, texts that critique these norms—such as the works of the Brontë sisters—might be seen as resisting hegemonic ideologies.

Methodology

To conduct a Marxist analysis of a literary text, you must approach it as both a product and a reflection of its socio-economic context. The methodology of Marxist criticism provides a structured way to uncover the economic, political, and ideological forces at play within a work of literature. It’s not about applying a rigid formula, but rather about engaging with texts in a way that is informed by Marxist principles.

The methodology of Marxist literary criticism equips readers with a systematic approach to uncovering the socio-economic and ideological forces at work in a text. By understanding historical context, analyzing class structures, and interrogating the text’s ideological underpinnings, readers can gain a deeper appreciation for literature’s role in reflecting and shaping the world. With these tools, even the most familiar stories reveal new layers of meaning tied to the economic and material realities of their time.

Understand the Historical and Socio-Economic Context

Marxist criticism begins with the premise that a text is shaped by the historical and material conditions of its time. This means analyzing the social, political, and economic environment in which the text was written. As Marx stated, “social being determines consciousness,” meaning the material conditions of society shape its culture and ideas. Literature reflects the values, struggles, and power structures of its historical moment, making this step essential for a thorough Marxist interpretation.

For example, to understand a literary work written during the Industrial Revolution, a Marxist critic would examine the social impact of industrialization, the emergence of the working class, and the class conflicts of that era. This context will help to illuminate the text’s themes and characters, and their relationship to their society. A Marxist reading of William Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper” must account for the historical context of the Industrial Revolution, which saw widespread exploitation of child labor. By situating the poem within this historical framework, a critic can better understand how Blake critiques the capitalist system that commodified human lives, especially the lives of children.

This approach differs from simply noting historical facts; it seeks to understand how these facts are reflected in the text’s narrative, themes, and forms.

Questions to Ask

• What were the dominant economic systems and class structures when the text was created?
• How did historical events or movements shape the themes and characters in the text?

Identify Class Structures and Relationships in the Text

Class struggle is a central concept in Marxism. Marxist critics examine how literary works portray the relationships between different social classes, particularly the bourgeoisie (the ruling class) and the proletariat (the working class).

In this step, analyze how characters are positioned in terms of class and how their relationships reflect larger societal structures. A Marxist critic would analyse not just the obvious conflicts between classes, but also the more subtle ways in which class relations shape character motivations, plot developments, and thematic concerns. A text might, for example, show how the ruling class uses culture and ideology to maintain its power, or it might highlight the forms of resistance and solidarity that emerge among the oppressed. It’s also important to consider the absence of certain classes from a text.

For instance, in Guy de Maupassant’s “The Necklace,” Mathilde’s desire to appear wealthier than she is highlights the rigid social stratification of her time. The consequences of her actions—plummeting into poverty due to her aspirations for upward mobility—illustrate the impossibility of escaping class boundaries under a capitalist system.

Questions to Ask

• What social classes are represented in the text? Who is not being represented and what does that silence signify?
• How do characters from different classes interact? Is there evidence of conflict, exploitation, or solidarity?

Analyze How Ideology Operates in the Text

Ideology refers to the beliefs and values that shape how people see the world. In literature, ideology often appears subtly, either reinforcing or challenging dominant societal norms. Ideology works to make the dominant culture seem natural and inevitable. It's not just about conscious political opinions; it also includes the deeply embedded assumptions and “common sense” notions that shape our understanding of the world. The Marxist critic must avoid simply restating the author’s overt intentions, but instead must reveal the underlying ideologies that shape the work.

In this step, examine the text for evidence of ideological forces at work, such as attitudes toward wealth, labor, or authority. A text might, for example, portray the wealthy as deserving of their privilege, thus reinforcing existing class hierarchies, or it might expose the injustices of that system. Conversely, it might show how certain ideologies, such as religious beliefs or cultural norms, can keep characters from recognizing their oppression.

To uncover ideology, look for the gaps, silences, and contradictions within a text. What is not said? What conflicts or tensions are left unresolved? These points often reveal the ideological underpinnings of the text, suggesting how it is shaped by a particular social perspective. For example, a seemingly apolitical love story might, through its silences and omissions, reflect or reinforce a particular ideology of gender roles.

For example, F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “Babylon Revisited” critiques the ideology of the American Dream. While the protagonist, Charlie, reflects on the decadence and materialism of the 1920s, the story also suggests that wealth and success are fleeting, leaving individuals emotionally and socially bankrupt.

Questions to Ask

• What values or beliefs are presented as natural or desirable in the text?
• Does the text challenge or uphold the dominant ideology of its time?

Examine the Author’s Socio-Economic Position

The socio-economic position of the author is an essential consideration for understanding how literature reflects and interacts with material conditions and dominant ideologies. Authors, like their works, are not isolated from the historical and economic forces of their time. Instead, they are embedded in systems of cultural and material production that shape their perspectives and creative output.

Marxist critics view authors as products of the same historical and material conditions that influence their works. As Williams explains, literature emerges from specific social and material practices and is deeply tied to the economic base of its time. This means that an author’s experiences, particularly those related to their class and social position, will inevitably influence the themes, characters, and conflicts present in their writing.

Likewise, literature itself is not immune to the economic forces of production and consumption. As Williams discusses, cultural works, including literature, are part of the productive forces of society. Authors, therefore, are both creators of art and participants in systems of cultural production that are often dictated by economic constraints.

An author’s socio-economic position also informs their relationship to dominant ideologies. Williams describes ideology as the “lived dominance and subordination of particular classes”, which shapes not only the content of cultural works but also the perspectives of their creators. Authors may unconsciously reproduce the values of the dominant class, or they may consciously critique and challenge these ideologies. For example, in The Great Gatsby, Fitzgerald critiques the materialism and excess of the 1920s while simultaneously romanticizing wealth and privilege. This duality reflects Fitzgerald’s complex position as both an observer of and participant in the upper-class culture he critiques. His own socio-economic status—as someone who aspired to wealth and fame—shaped his portrayal of the American Dream’s contradictions.

While many authors reflect dominant ideologies, others challenge them. Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony is particularly relevant here: authors can act as “organic intellectuals,” producing works that resist the dominant culture and advocate for social change. Williams highlights the potential for literature to serve as a form of resistance by exposing the contradictions within dominant ideologies. For instance, the Brontë sisters, who experienced the limitations of gender and class in 19th-century England, used their novels to critique patriarchal and class-based oppression. Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre challenges the economic exploitation of governesses and the restrictive roles available to women, offering a subtle resistance to the hegemonic norms of the time.

Questions to Ask

• How might the author’s socio-economic background have shaped their worldview and creative output?
• Are there parallels between the author’s life and the themes or characters in the text?
• How might different readers interpret the work differently based on their own ideological positions and backgrounds?

Explore Form, Style, and Metaphor

Marxist criticism does not only focus on the content of a text, but also on its form and style. How a story is told is just as important as what is told. Different literary forms and styles—such as realism, naturalism, romanticism, modernism, and postmodernism—are not neutral; they carry ideological weight. For example, a realist novel, with its focus on everyday life and detailed descriptions, might give the impression of representing objective reality, but it is in fact a carefully constructed and ideologically loaded representation. A more experimental, modernist style may be understood as a reaction against, or critique of, the dominant ideology.

Marxist critics also consider how literary techniques, such as narrative perspective, characterisation, and figurative language, contribute to a work's ideological project. A close reading of the language can reveal underlying assumptions about class, gender, race, and other social categories. The very way a text is structured can also be ideologically significant. For example, a narrative that focuses solely on the experiences of the wealthy may implicitly reinforce their dominance and marginalize other voices.

Marxist criticism pays close attention to the ways in which symbols, metaphors, and themes in literature encode societal concerns about class, labor, and economic power. Literary texts often use these elements to either critique or reinforce dominant ideologies, making them valuable sites for Marxist analysis. Raymond Williams suggests that cultural products often embody “structures of feeling,” which reflect the material and cultural conditions of their time. Symbols, metaphors, and recurring themes are key to uncovering these underlying conditions, as they reveal anxieties, contradictions, and power dynamics that shape human experience within a given economic system.

For example, in Guy de Maupassant’s “The Necklace,” the necklace symbolizes the illusion of wealth and social mobility. Mathilde’s obsession with material status drives her to financial ruin, exposing the rigid class structures of 19th-century France. The story critiques the capitalist emphasis on materialism and the futility of striving for upward mobility within a stratified society.

Similarly, in William Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper,” the imagery of soot-covered children and confined chimneys becomes a powerful metaphor for the exploitation of labor during the Industrial Revolution. The poem critiques both the economic system that dehumanizes children and the religious institutions that justify such exploitation. Through these symbols, Blake exposes the moral and social failures of the dominant class.

Questions to Ask

• What symbols or metaphors in the text represent class, power, or labor?
• How do recurring themes reflect the economic or social anxieties of the time?
• Does the text use these elements to critique or reinforce societal norms?

Evaluate the Text’s Potential for Resistance or Change

Marxist criticism often investigates whether a text critiques or reinforces existing power structures. Literature has the potential to challenge dominant ideologies by exposing the inherent contradictions within them. As Raymond Williams discusses, cultural production can serve as a space for resistance, revealing alternative perspectives and emergent practices that challenge the hegemony of the ruling class.

For instance, Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper” critiques both the exploitation of child labor and the religious institutions complicit in perpetuating that exploitation. Through stark imagery and biting irony, Blake challenges the moral authority of the dominant class, exposing the contradictions between their professed beliefs and their oppressive practices.

Questions to Ask

• Does the text challenge or uphold dominant power structures?
• Does it offer a vision of societal change or an alternative to the status quo?

Examples

Applying Marxist criticism to literature allows readers to uncover how texts engage with issues of class, power, and material conditions. By focusing on historical context, class dynamics, and ideology, Marxist readings reveal the deeper socio-economic forces shaping literature. Below, we apply these methods to works by William Blake, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Guy de Maupassant.

William Blake’s The Chimney Sweeper (from Songs of Experience)

Blake’s “The Chimney Sweeper” critiques the exploitation of child labor during the Industrial Revolution. The poem describes the lives of young chimney sweeps, who are forced into dangerous labor and endure harsh conditions. Through its imagery, tone, and themes, the poem exposes the dehumanizing effects of capitalism and the complicity of organized religion.

A Marxist reading highlights how the chimney sweeps represent the proletariat—exploited workers whose labor sustains the wealth and comfort of the bourgeoisie. The speaker, a child, sarcastically references how his parents and society justify their oppression: “And because I am happy, and dance and sing, / They think they have done me no injury.” This critique aligns with Marxist concerns about false consciousness, where dominant ideologies obscure the reality of exploitation.

The poem also critiques ideological complicity. The Church, instead of opposing oppression, provides moral justification for the exploitation of children, offering promises of heavenly rewards in exchange for suffering on Earth. A Marxist reading reveals how religion operates as part of the superstructure, perpetuating the capitalist system by pacifying the working class and discouraging rebellion.

Through “The Chimney Sweeper,” Blake resists dominant ideologies and exposes the contradictions between society’s moral ideals and its brutal exploitation of labor. The poem calls attention to the human cost of industrial capitalism, aligning with Marxist critiques of systems that prioritize profit over human dignity.

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “Babylon Revisited”

Set in the aftermath of the 1929 Stock Market Crash, Fitzgerald’s “Babylon Revisited” examines the effects of capitalism’s instability and the collapse of the American Dream. The story follows Charlie Wales, a once-wealthy man trying to rebuild his life after losing everything during the Great Depression. Through its exploration of wealth, loss, and redemption, the story critiques the unsustainable excesses of capitalism.

A Marxist reading focuses on how the text critiques the ideology of the American Dream, which promises upward mobility and success but often obscures the systemic inequalities that prevent many from achieving it. Charlie’s fall from wealth highlights capitalism’s volatility, showing how easily fortunes can be lost. His attempts to regain custody of his daughter are constantly thwarted by his past indulgence in material excess, reflecting how capitalist values prioritize wealth and status over human relationships.

The text also critiques the class divides inherent in capitalist society. Charlie’s sister-in-law, Marion, uses his financial irresponsibility as a justification for withholding his daughter, highlighting how economic stability becomes a moral marker in bourgeois society. Fitzgerald thus exposes how class prejudices and economic hierarchies shape personal relationships, aligning with Marxist concerns about economic determinism.

In “Babylon Revisited,” Fitzgerald critiques both the instability of capitalist systems and the ideologies that sustain them. The story reflects the disillusionment of the post-Depression era, revealing the social and emotional costs of economic inequality.

Guy de Maupassant’s “The Necklace”

Maupassant’s The Necklace explores the rigid class structures of 19th-century France through the tragic story of Mathilde, a middle-class woman who borrows a necklace to attend a high-society event. When the necklace is lost, she and her husband spend ten years repaying the debt, only to discover that the necklace was fake. A Marxist analysis reveals the story’s critique of materialism and the futility of striving for upward mobility in a stratified society.

The necklace itself symbolizes the illusion of wealth and status. Mathilde’s desire to appear wealthier than she is highlights the social pressures of capitalism, which equates personal worth with material possessions. Her downfall underscores how the capitalist system traps individuals in cycles of debt and labor, exploiting their aspirations for a better life.

The story also critiques the commodification of human relationships. Mathilde’s obsession with appearances leads her to prioritize material success over her husband’s well-being. Meanwhile, her husband sacrifices his own comfort to repay the debt, illustrating how the working class often bears the burden of bourgeois values

Through The Necklace, Maupassant critiques the capitalist fixation on material wealth and the social systems that perpetuate class inequality. The story reveals the human cost of a society that prioritizes appearances over substance and profit over people.

Final Thoughts

Marxist literary criticism remains an essential tool for understanding the socio-economic forces that shape literature and society. By focusing on the relationship between material conditions, class dynamics, and ideology, Marxist analysis provides unique insights into how cultural products reflect and influence the world in which they are created. This approach equips readers with the tools to explore the ways in which power, class, and economics inform not only literature but also our broader cultural landscape.

As we have seen in examples above, Marxist readings illustrate how literature critiques or reinforces dominant ideologies. Blake exposes the dehumanization of the proletariat under capitalism, Fitzgerald critiques the instability and false promises of the American Dream, and Maupassant reveals the rigid class hierarchies and materialist illusions that perpetuate social inequality. These examples demonstrate that literature is not merely a source of entertainment or aesthetic appreciation but also a vital cultural artifact that reflects and critiques the socio-economic systems of its time.

The continued importance of Marxist criticism lies in its ability to address issues that persist in contemporary capitalist societies. The widening wealth gap, the commodification of labor, and the pervasive influence of neoliberal ideologies on media, politics, and culture make Marxist analysis as relevant today as it was in the time of Marx and Engels. For example, modern gig economies reflect the exploitation of labor, while mass media and advertising reinforce consumerist ideologies that prioritize profit over human well-being. Literature, as a product of these systems, continues to reflect, critique, and sometimes resist these forces.

For students of literature, Marxist criticism is not merely an academic exercise but a way to engage critically with the world. By analyzing the economic and ideological forces that shape texts, readers can better understand the power structures that govern society and explore the possibilities for resistance and change. This approach encourages us to see literature not as an isolated artifact but as an integral part of the socio-economic systems that shape our lives.

In a world increasingly shaped by global capitalism, the insights offered by Marxist criticism remain indispensable. By uncovering the connections between literature and the material conditions of its production, this approach helps us to better understand the inequalities, struggles, and possibilities that define the human experience. As students of literature and citizens of the world, engaging with Marxist criticism allows us to see the forces at work in our societies and inspires us to envision a more equitable future.

Bibliography

• Antonio, Robert; Cohen, Ira J., eds. (2003). Marx and Modernity: Key Readings and Commentary. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. This provides an accessible introduction to Marx's thought and its relevance for modern cultural theory.
• Barrett, Michèle (1988). "The Place of Aesthetics in Marxist Criticism". In Nelson, Cary; Grossberg, Lawrence. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. pp. 679–713.
• Eagleton, Terry (1976). Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. London: Humanities Press. Eagleton provides an analysis of the development and potential of Marxist criticism.
• — (1996). Literary Theory: An Introduction. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. A comprehensive introduction to literary theory that includes a thorough exploration of Marxist approaches.
• — (1976). Marxism and Literary Criticism. London and New York: Routledge.
• Jameson, Fredric (1988). "Cognitive Mapping". In Nelson, Cary; Grossberg, Lawrence. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. pp. 347–357.
• — (1981). The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP. Jameson is a leading figure in Marxist literary theory, and this work is considered a cornerstone of the field.
• — (2009). Valences of the Dialectic. Verso. This book offers a comprehensive view of the dialectic, a central concept in Marxist thought, and its impacts on literary theory.
• Lukács, György (1971). The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-Philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Lukács is a significant figure in Marxist criticism, and this book presents his historical approach to literary form.
• Moretti, Franco (1988). "The Spell of Indecision". In Nelson, Cary; Grossberg, Lawrence. Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. pp. 339–344.
• Selden, Raman; Widdowson, Peter; Brooker, Peter (2005). A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory (Fifth ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Longman.
• Tyson, Lois (2015). Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide (Third ed.). New York: Routledge.
• Williams, Raymond (1977). Marxism and Literature. Oxford: Oxford UP. Williams is a key figure in Marxist literary theory, and this book outlines his approach to cultural materialism.
• — (1980). Problems in Materialism and Culture. Verso Books. This book consists of a selection of essays reflecting on the application of Marxist theories to literature and culture.

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